Korean War (1950-1953)

A light drizzle was showering the land of the Morning Calm at 04:00, Sunday on June 25, 1950. The quiet was broken all of a sudden by the strident sounds and tanks and automatic rifles. North Korea penetrated into South Korea from all points along the 38th parallel. Three days later on June 28, Seoul was captured by the North.

The American government hastily sent some troops from Japan to Korea to stop the North Korean advance. But, by mid-July the North Korean troops annihilated the first U.S troops near Osan. United Nation Security Council was convened upon the request of the United States and as a result, the United Nation forces under the command of U.S general Douglas MacArthur were dispatched to Korea.

U.N member states that provided military assistance to Korea were as follows: Ground forces included Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, Turkey, the Union of south Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States; Naval forces included Australia, Canada, the Union of South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States; Air forces included Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States; Medical Corps included Denmark, India, Italy, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and United States. In addition, Costa Rica and Panama, Nationalist China and El Salvador assisted Korea, but their assistance was deferred.

The first clash between U.S. and North Korea took place in Osan on July 5, 1950. General MacArther visited Korea on the 29th of June and requested military aid on the 30th, prompting U.S. president Truman to dispatch troops to Korea. On the next day on July 1st, the Smith army arrived in Busan. They were feeling quite confident about the war, and believed that their presence would frighten away the North Korean troops. However, the Smith army suffered a major defeat. From the battle, U.S forces lost 150 of the 540 soldiers, and 72 were held hostage by the North Korean army. It was July 7, 1950, when the first-ever UN troops arrived in Korea.

Following the suggestion of the United Kingdom and France to establish the UN headquarters, UN formed the first-ever ruling organization with real power. It was also decided then that troops dispatched from different countries would come under the control of the U.S. forces. Following this decision, Gen. MacArthur was selected to command the United Nations forces, and on the 14th, he was given control over the Korean army as well. Gen. MacArthur was now the head of the U.S. Korea, and the UN troops. A total of 16 counties agreed to dispatch troops to Korea, and five other countries offered medical aid. UN troops sent a total of 341,000 soldiers including one army unit, two marine corps units and three air force units. Despite the help of the U.S. troops and UN military aid, the war was not looking well for the South.

The city of Daejeon went over to the North Korean forces on July 20, 1950, followed by two-thirds of the South Korean territory falling into the hands of Kim Il Sung. Then on September 15, 6:30 am, the UN forces successfully carried out a bold amphibious landing operation at Incheon with 261 warships and troops well over 75,000, trapping the North Korean forces in the South. On September 28, Seoul was recovered and by early October, the U.N troops crossed the 38th parallel in pursuit of the fleeing North Korean troops. At this point, Kim Il Sung finally asked for military assistance from China. Chinese leaders had heated debates over whether or not to send their assistance to North Korea. Premier Chou En Lai and others opposed such a reckless idea and agreement could not be reached. Then Mao Tse Tung sent Chou En Lai to Moscow to seek advice from Stalin, who, after stating that the Soviet Union was not ready to fight a war in Asia, encouraged China to provide military assistance to North Korea.

Under the commitment of the Soviet to protect his country, Mao mobilized troops of the Chinese People's Liberation Army and sent them to Manchuria. The U.N forces have captured Pyeongyang on October 20, 1950 and were moving up toward the Amnok or Yalu River. It was then met by the intervention of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, and was forced to retreat to the south and Seoul was retaken by the Communists in the early January 1951. Battered Seoul changed hands for the fourth time on March 14, when allied forces recovered it once again. Fierce fights continued into the spring of 1951 over the eastern front and the UN air raids were intensifying against the North. The U.S. government began secret talks with the Chinese counterpart, but the latter's proposal for a simultaneous withdrawal of the both U.N. and Chinese forces was rejected, ending the negotiations.

In June 1951, Soviet Union proposed a cease fire, leading to truce talks in late June that first began in Gaesong, followed by then-small hamlet named Panmunjeom. The two most difficult issues involved the location of the truce line and repatriations of prisoners. President Rhee Seung Man, without any consultation with or authorization from the U.N., released 27,000 North Korean POW who did not wish to be repatriated, almost jeopardizing the truce negotiation. Then, the death of Stalin in March 1953 and the failure to make any further advance into the South during the spring offensive led the North Koreans and the Chinese to negotiate more seriously with the U.N. representatives. The first true negotiation began on July 10, 1951. After 158 rounds of negotiations, armistice agreement was reached at Panmunjeom on July 27, 1953. Upon the signing of the truce, a 250Kms-long military demarcation line was drawn and 4 km wide demilitarized zone was set up on each side of the line. At the same time, Panmunjeom was designated as a neutral zone where the Neutral Nations Armistice Supervisory Commission established its headquarters.

4:00 AM , June 25, 1950
Outbreak of the Korean War
North Korea launched the operation "storm, an all-out attack on the South, without any declaration of war. It surprised the whole world, which was still recovering from the aftermath of World War II just five years ago. Up to that point, the North and South had experienced some clashes along the 38th parallel. But such an all-out surprise attack was never expected in the Southern camp and the enemy facing them now was both familiar and new at the same time. After World War II, Soviet Union had steadily supplied arms to North Korea in an effort to build Pyongyang's military strength. On the other hand, the United States did not allow any arms except for some rifles to the South Korean troops. This was because the U.S. suspected that the South Korean President, Mr. Seung-man Rhee, had previously attempted to go into war with North Korea. Besides, the U.S. mistakenly assumed that tanks would not be effective for the mountainous Korean frontier.

The Korean army did not even have anti-tank weapons such as mines and artilleries. Furthermore, the day prior to the attack was a summer holiday. Most of the Korean soldiers went home to help their families with farming. The soldiers on the front line literally fought with their hands and were killed one by one in the gun smoke or rolled over by the Soviet-made T-34 tanks. North Korean troops attacked the South from three directions: east, central and west. The west attack, the strongest of all, was mainly to seize Seoul. North Korea also captured Uijeongbu, a gateway to Seoul just north of the capital. The central attack quickly occupied the Ong-jin Peninsula which was surrounded by water from all sides except on the north. The east attack steadily made its way into the eastern part of the Korean Peninsula. In the meantime the Korea Broadcasting Service (KBS), in an attempt to calm the public, announced casually that the South Korean soldiers were attacking the North along the 38th parallel. While most people dismissed the report as "just another clash along the line," high-ranking government officials and other important figures began evacuating the city.

June 25, 1950. United Nation's Decision
The news of the attack first arrived in Washington at 8:00 PM, June 24th ( 9:00 AM , June 25th in Korean Time), and the official telegram of the news by the U.S. Embassy followed one hour later with more details. It reported that the North Korean attack was an all-out invasion over the whole front line along the 38th parallel. The next day, June 25th, despite it being Sunday, the UN Security Council was called in by the urgent request of the United States and it agreed to ask North Korean to stop its military actions and withdraw to the north of the 38th parallel line immediately. The Council also adopted the decision that all the member countries of the United Nations should support the U.N. decision and should not help North Korea in any means. Nine out of 11 countries supported the decision, save for Yugoslavia who abstained, and the Soviet Union who did not attend the meeting. At that time, the Soviet Union was opposed to the United States' position on every matter, so other states had assumed that the Soviet would attend and throw an "against" vote. But strangely enough, the Soviet representative did not attend. In spite of the decision of U.N., North Korean troops continued their march to the South and reached the outskirts of Seoul. The South Korean government asked U.N. for a stronger action, and the U.N. Security Council adopted a new decision that U.N. will provide South Korea with all necessary aid including military actions against the North Koreans who ignored the previous decisions. The United States decided to dispatch their military forces to the Korean Peninsula, and President Truman ordered General Douglas MacArthur, the Chief Commander of the Far East U.S. Armed Forces to mobilize their sea and air forces to help the South Koreans.

June 28th, 1950.
Fall of Seoul
At 3 A.M. on June 27th, one day after the attack, the Cabinet members of the Korean government gathered to make a decision to relocate their government to Su-won, some 50km south of Seoul. Tens of thousands of refugees flocked to Seoul from the northern region, which had already been seized by the North, and the citizens of Seoul realized that their government had deceived them. Rumor that the government had already moved to south disappointed the people even further. By sunset, North Korean troops led by dozens of T-34 tanks stormed into Miari, located in northern Seoul. South Koreans counterattacked the North and surprisingly, they managed to drive them out. However, they were defeated in the second battle the same night. It was an hour past midnight on the 28th of June and Seoul was at stake. It was 28 minutes past 2 A.M, an hour and a half since the capture of Miari. Glaring lights from two successive explosions illuminated the night sky, making it as bright as day. The only bridge over the Han River was destroyed by explosions. The sudden collapse of the bridge killed over a thousand people crossing the river and blocked the course of southbound soldiers

June 29, 1950 Seoul
Three Days in Seoul
For some reason, the North Koreans did not take any other action for three days after their seize of Seoul. There have been several theories for the 3-day intermission, and one was explained in a KBS TV program called "Sunday Special" on June 26, 1999. The explanation is as follows: Although the South Korean army failed to protect Seoul during the battle, they strongly resisted, severely damaging the second North Korean troops in the central and eastern frontier. This was their first victory over the North Koreans. Because of the failure of their initial strategy, the North wasted nearly three days with no sign of progress. Giving time to the enemy is a fatal mistake in modern warfare. On this day, General MacArthur, the Commander in Chief of the U.S. Far East Armed Forces, arrived in Korea and observed the situation along the front line. Before him was the most pitiful sight - the sight of an army about to fall into pieces. However, his visit greatly boosted the morale of the Korean soldiers, and during the North's 3-day stay in Seoul , he appointed General Il Kwon Chung as the Commander in Chief of the Korean Army, and the Korean army was able to regain their strength. Interview with General Il Kwon Chung, the Commander in Chief of the South Korean Army at that time, is as follows "If the North Koreans continued their attack south of Seoul, we might have had to face the worst situation. In that case the U.S. would have lost the chance to help the South, and the landing of Incheon shore would have been a lot more difficult."

July 5, 1950
First clash between the U.S. and North Korea
On June 30, North Korean troops broke the silence and began their attack. Gen. MacArthur, who came to Korea on the 29th, requested military aid, and on the 30th, U.S. President Truman dispatched troops to Korea. On the next day, July 1st, the Smith army arrived in Busan, Korea. U.S. troops were feeling quite confident about the war. They had believed that their presence alone would frighten away the North Korean troops. However, the Smith army suffered a major defeat. From the battle, U.S. forces lost 150 out of 540 soldiers, and 72 were held hostage by the North Korean army. Their only accomplishment was that they managed to stall the North Korean army's southward march for six hours.

July 7, 1950-
The first-ever UN troops
Following the U.K. and France's suggestion of co-establishing the UN headquarters, UN formed the first-ever ruling organization with real power. It was also decided then that troops dispatched from different countries would come under the control of the U.S. . This marked the first establishment of the UN troops. Following this decision, Gen. MacArthur was selected to command the United Nations forces, and on the 14th, he was given control over the Korean army as well. Gen. MacArthur was now the head of the U.S., the Korean, and the UN troops. A total of 16 countries agreed to dispatch troops to Korea, and five other countries offered medical corps units. UN troops sent a total of 341,000 soldiers including one land troop, two armies,, nine divisions, three brigades, eight infantry regiments and volunteers. In addition, two marine corps units and three air force units were mobilized.

July 20, 1950
Retreat after retreat
Despite the help of the U.S. land troops and UN military aid, the war was not looking well for the South. U.S. troops were forced to retreat from Juk-miryung, Chun-an, and the Kum River defense line, and on July 20,, they were engaged in another fierce battle with the North Korean troops. In the midst of all this chaos, the commander of the U.S. 24th Infantry Division, code named Task Force Smith, was captured, and the city of Daejeon went over to the North. However, things were different at the mid-eastern battlefront, where South Korean forces were in control. Perhaps it was because the Korean soldiers there were mentally stronger than their U.S. counterparts. They were defending their homeland with their lives. Although the North Korean army was superbly equipped, the South's aggressive tactics managed to considerably damage the North. During the Battle of Dongduk-ri, where South Korean forces destroyed one entire North Korean regiment, the South discovered that the Soviet was providing massive assistance to the North from the weapons found.

For the entire month of July, U.S. and South Korean troops were forced to retreat many times, but they did their best to stall the North's progressive attacks. It was a vicious cycle at first, during which the U.S. troops would retreat, then the Korean troops would follow suit to keep up with pace. The North continued their attack with Yak9 fighter planes, but they were obliterated by the U.S. and UN troops. The U.S. and UN forces were clearly at an advantage on land and in the sky, and they were able to stall the enemy force's southward march by cutting off supplies to the North. On July 25, 1950, at the Nakdong River Defense line at the Nakdong River, the North Korean army easily seized the province of Honam , which was already weakened by the capture of Daejeon and the Kumgang battlefront. South Koreans capital was quickly changed from Daegu to Busan, a city located on the southernmost tip of the peninsula. Now, the Republic of Korea had to struggle to defend a little patch of land around Busan, covering only 90km from east to west and 135km north to south. Meanwhile, the commander of the 8th U.S. army set up a defense line along Nakdong River and told soldiers that "retreating is out of the question and we must fight this land with our lives." Under the blazing sun and merciless heat, the North, South, U.S., and the UN troops were fiercely battling for the patch of land of Busan. The army even drafted young students to make up for missing soldiers. The Nakdong River turned crimson with blood, and the sound of gunshots and terrified screams permeated the air. It would have been difficult to guard the Nakdong defense line without the help of the U.S. air force.

The allied air force brought nearly 100 B-29 war planes from Okinawa and greatly weakened the enemy's side by dropping bombs. The air force was always ready to help with at least two war planes when there was a land battle as well. Thanks to their help, the North's strength was significantly weakened. For the U.S. army, the fiercest battle of all was the Battle of Youngsan at Nakdong River. In this battle, the first commander of the U.S. Eighth Army Walton H. Walker dispatched a mobile striking force to fight off the enemy during critical moments. When he came back after a brief retreat, he found his fellow men bound and killed. In this foreign land far from their home, fear and rage fueled the hearts of the U.S. soldiers and gave them a new spark of courage. The Nakdong River battlefront grew narrower and narrower from August to mid-September. Situation for the U.S. troops changed from once desperate enough to consider retreating to Japan to aim for victory now. Kim Il-Sung's hope of seizing Busan by August 15 failed to come true. The North Korean army fought with maximum strength at Nakdong, but it was clearly not enough. Now, the UN troops were ready to fire.

August 28, 1950The Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Nakdong River reeked with blood as war raged on at the battlefront. For now, the ultimate goal of the UN troops was to avoid being swept off to the sea along the river. The North Koreans were battling with the same ferocity as the South and its allies to penetrate the defense line. Meanwhile, Gen. MacArthur was doing his best to complete Operation Chromite, a daring plan to launch a mass attack on Incheon to wipe out the majority of North Korean forces. However, the U.S. Ministry of National Defense was opposed to this idea with Incheon being a dangerous spot for landing. This is because the difference between high and low tide was far too great in Incheon, not to mention the inconsistency. In addition, the Nakdong River defense line was already struggling, and it would be a dangerous gamble to dispatch soldiers at Nakdong to Incheon. Despite the odds, Gen. MacArthur still believed the plan would succeed. First of all, he thought Incheon would be a good location for the recapture of Seoul, since it was only 32km away from Seoul. He believed recovering control of Seoul would greatly hurt the morale of the enemy. Secondly, MacArthur predicted that a surprise attack on Incheon would catch the enemy off guard, since most of their forces were concentrated on the Nakdong River defense line. Also, he pleaded to the Ministry of Defense that the soldiers at Nakdong were weary and may be fighting a losing battle. Finally, the Ministry of Defense gave permission to launch Operation Chromite. However, Gen. MacArthur was still advised to try Kunsan if landing at Incheon was too difficult. Meanwhile, the U.S. troops at the Nakdong defense line were struggling in one of the fiercest battles ever against the North. This was also when the Battle of Youngsan took place.

September 15th
D-day
The high-risk Operation Chromite was finally launched on the shores of Incheon. Seventy-five thousand soldiers and 261 battleships sailed north from Chejudo to the West Sea. U.S. intelligence officials arrived in Incheon beforehand to relay reports to the headquarters. UN troops arrived in Wolmido at 6:31 AM, one minute behind time the original plan, ready to begin their attack. Soon after, the smell of gunpowder and smoke filled the entire island of Wolmido, and the attack began. The North Korean troops were taken aback by the unexpected blow and failed to counterattack. As a result, UN troops were able to seize the entire island by 8 AM. From the commanding post in Mount McKinley, Gen. MacArthur was watching the successful results of his plan with satisfaction. A violent battle raged on in downtown Incheon on the night of the 15th, but by dawn, the North Korean troops were forced to retreat. From the Operation, the death toll for the UN forces was 20; it was over 1,400 for the North. The plan turned out to be a huge success. The U.S. Marine Corps seized Kimpo Airport and moved war planes over to Kimpo from Japan. Before, warplanes had to fly all the way from Japan, but now, they were able to save considerable time by flying directly from Kimpo.

September 28th-Seoul
Return to Seoul
The first commander of the U.S. Eighth Army Walton H. Walker, who had been on standby at the Nakdong River, broke through the defense line and advanced northward. The North Korean troops lost their wits at the news that Seoul was recaptured by the South, and they quickly began retreating. A special U.S. Regiment 777 advanced to Seoul faster than any other troops, and on the 26th, they met with part of the troop that had landed at Incheon and Osan. Osan, located south of Seoul, was also the place where the Smith troop encountered the North Korean forces during the early stages of the war. Seoul was reclaimed on the 28th, after two weeks of intense battling. A triumphant celebration was held, attended by President Seung-man Rhee and Gen. MacArthur, and the evacuated Korean government returned to Seoul. President Rhee was speechless with joy, but he managed to utter words of thanks to the UN troops and the South Korean military force, which have fought so bravely. The nation warmly welcomed President Rhee's return to Seoul. Unfortunately, Seoul was no longer the city it used to be. Every inch of the city was ravaged and war-stricken, reminiscent of the remains of Hiroshima. One reporter who had witnessed postwar Japan claimed that conditions in Seoul were far worse than those of the war-torn cities of Tokyo and Yokohama. But the most terrifying evidence of the war was the decaying bodies that littered the ground. The North Korean soldiers had ruthlessly killed all those who stood in their way.

October 1st-38th Parallel - To the North
The war had come full circle with the Operation Chromite. The South Korean and UN troops had arrived at the 38th parallel and were awaiting further commands. But there was a problem. UN Commander in Chief Gen. MacArthur and South Korean president Seuyng-man Rhee declared that they would cross the 38th parallel and achieve reunification. But UN troops wanted to stop at this point. They did want to prolong the war. While the UN debated on whether to cross the 38th parallel or not, a message arrived for Il-kwon Chung, the Chief of the General Staff: North Korean troops had started firing at the South about 500m in front of the 38th parallel and South Korean soldiers were standing on flat ground where defense was impossible. They either had to advance 500km and face the North Koreans or retreat 500km. The Chief of the General Staff was faced with a major dilemma. The U.S. government had ordered not to cross the 38th parallel without proper command, but President Rhee just told them to go ahead with the attack. Chung asked Commander Walker to give them the go-ahead, and finally they were granted permission to attack the North. On the first day of October, South Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel and charged northward. The next day, Gen. MacArthur ordered the UN troops to follow suit, giving the North a final warning to surrender. This was when China came into the picture. China had warned the UN it would enter the war if UN troops advanced any further to the north.

2:00 PM, October 26th Amnok River
South Korean soldiers at the western battlefront were the first to reach the Amnok River, located near the northernmost border of the Korean Peninsula facing China. Shortly after, in November, U.S. forces from the eastern battlefront arrived as well. The UN and South Korean forces, who had believed that the war was over, reached Amnok River without much difficulty. It had taken just 15 days to seize Pyeongyang, the North Korean capital, and they easily captured the port city of Wonsan as well. On October 25 th , the previous day, the U.S. soldiers were attacked by what appeared to be Chinese soldiers, but they didn't think much of it. Now the UN and South Korean forces were wrapping up the war and eliminating the last of the North Korean troops. After examining the situation in Amnok River, Gen. MacArthur was satisfied as there appeared to be no Soviet or Chinese forces. Gen. MacArthur expected to end the war once and for all before the end of 1950. The victorious soldiers were relaxing by the cool Amnok River, reminiscing about the war that seemed to have begun so long ago. But little did they know what would be awaiting them the next morning.

October 19, 1950
Chinese troops crossed the Amnok River
It was not an entirely unimaginable idea that the Red Chinese army might participate in the Korean War. On October 1st, the day after the landing in the Incheon Bay by the UN troops, China warned that if it was the UN, not South Korea, that crosses the 38th parallel line, the Chinese will not remain still. However the UN troops crossed the 38th parallel line on October 2 nd and Mao Zedong, then Chinese leader, started secrete discussion with the Soviet Union about their participation in the Korean War. At that time the Chinese were in short of air force and wanted to be assisted by the Soviet. Finally the two agreed on the Chinese participation on a condition that the Soviet help the Chinese with its air force and war supplies. On the other hand, General MacArthur was certain that the Chinese would not get involved in the war and assured President Truman that the Chinese would not participate in the war and even if they did, they would only be defeated. He said that the American soldiers would be able to return to Japan by Christmas. However, on the 19th of October, only three days after MacArthur's assurance, Chinese crossed the Amnok River. As they entered the Korean territory, they disappeared into the forest and the UN troops failed to notice their presence. By this time, UN had just occupied the North Korean capital, Pyeongyang, and Hamhung, a major city of South Ham Kyung Province, seizing control of most of North Korea. November 2, 1950Chinese army enters the Korean War

On October 25th, the U.S. army was attacked by a troop which appeared to be Chinese. The Americans, however, thought they were Chinese-born Koreans. On November 1st, the Chinese army launched a full scale attack on the western front line, and on the 2nd, China made an official announcement that it was now involved in the Korean War. The Chinese participation dealt severe blows to the UN troops. The Chinese troops were very different from the North Korean ones, whose tactics were quite familiar to the UN troops. The Chinese made head-on attacks to the UN camps while blocking all supply lines as well as probable paths for retreat. They also launched surprise attacks from the rear. In addition, they hid out in the forests during the day and attacked by the night, distracting their enemy with bugles and gongs. They often set the forest on fire so that the UN air force could not find them in the smoke. Such strategies bewildered and frightened the UN troops. In one attack, an American troop was completely surrounded by the Chinese and barely survived. While all this was going on, Soviet MIG-15 war planes appeared in the air. Up to this point, the UN forces faced little trouble in the sky, but the appearance of Soviet airplanes drastically changed the situation. In late November, the Chinese also started to attack the eastern front line. The 1st Division of the U.S. Marine Corps had to face the worst situation of all. The Chinese mobilized almost seven divisions and surrounded them tightly in the biting cold North Korean weather. Interview: "During the battle of Jangjin Reservoir, we couldn't help but feel sorry for the Chinese, who were our enemy at that time. Although we were using high-powered 50 caliber machine guns, the Chinese soldiers charged straight towards us. Their tactic was to march straight towards the enemy's side. The poor fellows didn't know much about sophisticated war tactics, and their use of human power was very ineffective. Edward Reeves, Korean War veteran.

November 30, 1950
We can use atomic bomb
President Truman, angered by the news of a total defeat of the U.S. troops, astonished the world on November 30 in a press conference by declaring that he might consider the use of atomic bombs in the Korean war. He added that the decision may be put into effect regardless of the UN approval. Meanwhile, many UN member states worried that the Chinese involvement in the Korean war may lead to another World War. Naturally, they suggested an armistice. British Prime minister Attlee flew in to Washington in a hurry after Truman's press conference and suggested negotiating with China. However, President Truman insisted on even stronger countermeasures. While the U.S. and the U.K. debated with each other, the Chinese seized Pyongyang, the North Korean capital, on December 5th, and the UN retreat continued. After less than two months of UN's advance toward north, the tables were turned once again in favor of North Korea. General MacArthur insisted that America use strong countermeasures against the Chinese. He first proposed to seal off the Chinese seashore, bomb the mainland China, and then bring the Taiwanese troops into the war. The final alternative would be atomic bomb. Based on the General's proposal, President Truman made a final decision to fight the war to the end. Following the decision, he announced that he will declare a state of emergency in the United States and strengthen her military power. However, thanks to Attlee's persuasion, Truman promised that atomic bomb would not be an option in this war.

December 24, 1950
Schindler's List in Korea
The UN and South Korean soldiers gathered in Heungnam fled through the broken Chinese encirclement in the Chang Jin Lake area. Since the whole area was seized by the Chinese, they had to flee to the sea by ships along with thousands of Korean natives who did not want to stay under the Communist rule.

January 4, 1951
The January 4th Retreat
The western front line situated in Seoul was forced to retreat all the way to the 38th parallel due to the Chinese attack. Just two days before Christmas, General Walker, the Commanding Officer of the U.S. 8th Army was killed in a car accident. He had endured some of the most severe periods during the Korean War including the Nakdong River battle in the southern end of the Korean Peninsula. General Ridgeway, who was appointed as his successor, flew directly to the front line. With the dawn of the new year, the Chinese stepped up their war efforts and became more aggressive. Citizens of Seoul fled the city at the news that the city will soon be assaulted by the Chinese. It was the second time they had to flee from Seoul in less than two years. They crossed the frozen Han River, leaving behind an empty, silent city. General Ridgeway decided to retreat, and they withdrew south to the Kum River. However, the continued attacks on the Chinese supply lines by the UN air forces weakened the Communist, allowing Ridgeway precious time to refuel the front line. What was most important at this point was to give hope to the weary soldiers and to strengthen their morals. He went around the front line by jeep and helicopter to encourage the soldiers. Severe battles were ignited once again. The Allied forces resisted the Communist manpower with effective use of weapons. Ridgeway launched countless bombs on industrial areas and major cities of North Korea like Pyongyang and Wonsan to cut the North's supply lines. And in January of 1951, the allied troops launched a counterattack and recaptured Suwon. The Chinese responded with an all-out attack in February. However, the UN forces defeated their attack without much difficulty. Most notably, the French troops, in coalition with the U.S. army, defeated three Chinese troops at the time.

April 11, 1951-Washington.
General MacArthur fired
As the situation improved for the allied forces, the U.S. started to consider ending the Korean War. President Rhee and Gen. MacArthur both insisted on taking the war a couple steps further, fearing that insufficient measures would trigger another war However, the UN member states participated in the war strongly insisted on armistice. They felt that enough blood had been spilt, and feared that the Korean War would grow into another World War. They made it clear that they would withdraw their forces if the U.S. advanced beyond the 38th parallel line. On March 15, the UN troops recaptured Seoul shifting the war in their favor. The pressure for armistice from the UN member states became even stronger and finally, Truman decided to follow their proposal by negotiating with China. General MacArthur received this news in shock. A few days later, without consulting the U.S. government, Gen. MacArthur delivered a sharp address to the Chinese, offering an armistice to the Chinese Commander-in-Chief. Along with this, he made a critical remark about Truman's policies. President Truman was outraged by MacAthur's action and fired him on the 11th of April. The legendary general Douglas MacArthur, once the ruler of Korea and Japan, Caesar of the Pacific, was released from his office. His position was succeeded by General Ridgeway, and Van Fleet was appointed as the new Commander of the U.S. 8 th Army. On April 16th, MacArthur returned home as an American citizen. Although he was fired, his popularity was as high as ever. Cheering crowds spilled out into the streets to celebrate his homecoming while voices criticizing Truman became louder. On April 19th, the 71-year-old veteran delivered a speech, during which he made the famous remark: "Old soldiers never die, they only fade away."

MacArthur's Address
His address before the Congress was received with thunderous applause and moved the hearts of many congressmen. Some members even wept out loud. In April and May of 1951, the Communists resumed their attacks. At this point, both UN and the Chinese were well-prepared for battle. The UN troops managed to resist the Chinese attack, but with heavy casualties. Now the war had come full circle. The Chinese tactic of utilizing "manpower" versus the UN's wide-scale use of firearms. It was quite clear that neither side could win the war by force.

Result of the Cold War
Following World War II, countries around the world have opted to follow either the American-led capitalism or Soviet-led communism. The Cold War has now begun, making the 38th parallel on the Korean peninsula a vivid testimony to this fact. The U.S. and the Soviet Union divided the tiny peninsula in half, with the U.S. taking the south and the Soviet the north. The division brought about tremendous changes, especially in the hearts of the Korean people. Men and women who were once neighbors became bitter enemies for no specific reason other than that they now held different beliefs. This animosity reached a level where war was inevitable, and the U.S. and the Soviet fueled the war in an attempt to extinguish each other. As soon as the war broke out, the U.S. dispatched their forces and brought in the UN troops as well. Even though the Soviet provided relatively smaller manpower, they supplied the North Korean army with military equipment from their own country as well as from China. In addition, Soviet pilots flying the Soviet-made MIG fighter planes waged battles with the UN fighter planes. After the war, the U.S. budget for national security increased dramatically. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) established in Western Europe grew in power as well.

Germany and Japan, the losers of WWII, began preparations for another war. The Soviet Union continued its aid to the Eastern European countries and strengthened its national military force as well. If the Cold War first started in Poland, it can be said that it was matured in Korea, where the last international war was fought with traditional weapons. The world was all too familiar with the deadly effects of an atomic bomb. In July of 1945, the U.S. successfully completed nuclear testing and launched the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August. The bomb reduced both cities into shambles, and Japan was forced to surrender immediately. The Korean War in 1950 was the first war since the invention of nuclear weapons. In 1945, the U.S. was the only country to possess this deadly weapon, but the Soviet Union also joined this rank after its successful nuclear testing in 1949. There was always a possibility that nuclear weapons could be used in the Korean War. Fortunately, this never turned into a reality. Most of the weapons used in the war were quite traditional. Many realized from this war that strong air force was essential in modern warfare.

Around the time that China entered the war, the Soviet Union introduced MIG fighter planes to the war scene. Between the Soviet MIG-15's and the U.S. F-84's, the former proved to be more powerful, ending the U.S. reign in the skies. With the MIG's, fighter bombers like the B-29's were quite useless. However, in the latter half of the war, U.S.-made F-86 planes overpowered the MIG-15's, allowing the B-29's to shower enemy territories with bombs. The Korean War also discovered the hidden potential of helicopters, whose major advantage was portability. Helicopters became useful in rescue operations, supply delivery, and patrols. Meanwhile, the leading nations of the war came to realize that waging a battle with traditional weapons was quite meaningless and directed their attention toward the most potent source of destruction - the atomic bomb. From now on, a single button- not the number of casualties - would determine the outcome of a war.

The Forgotten War
The Korean War involved a total of 26 countries: Communist China, the Soviet Union, Capitalist U.S., the UN member states, Japan (non-UN member), and ultimately North Korea and South Korea. It started out as an internal war between North and South Korea , but quickly turned into an international conflict. As a result, it affected many countries in ways both direct and indirect. However, the Korean War failed to gain neither public recognition nor support. The United Kingdom, a country with the highest number of casualties after the U.S, set up a memorial monument in 1987, nearly 30 years after the war. Whereas the Vietnam War was immortalized by countless Hollywood productions, the Korean War slowly faded away from people's memories. Today, the Korean Peninsula remains the only divided nation in the world, the only region to be separated by the cold war.

July 27, 1953
Armistice signed
Though intermittently discussed, both sides saw the need for armistice talks. At that time, Malik, J., the USSR representative to the United Nations, addressed the general assembly on June 23. He proposed a discussion for an armistice to all the warring nations. The Allies were concerned that an armistice was just another word for a limited war while the Communist, significantly weakened by the UN army, knew it would have no chance of victory. One week after, Ridgeway, the Commander of the UN army, proposed armistice talks to Peng Teh-Huai, Commander of the Chinese People's Volunteers. The Communist side accepted the proposal and the talk began in Gaeseong on July 10. The talk went smoothly at first but soon the two parties showed disagreements on the issue of borderline, eventually leading the talk in a deadlock. The Communist side refused any further negotiation and the talk came to an end on August 22. After the spoiled armistice talks, the intensity of the battle picked up once again and it produced numerous military achievements like the recapture of Danjang ridgeline.

About two months after the talks ceased, and Ridgeway proposed the resumptions of the talks, and it began again on October 25 at Panmunjeom. The Communist side accepted the UN proposal of regarding the Military Demarcation Line as the borderline and further agreed to establish the Neutral Nations Armistice Supervisory Commission (NNASC). However, the two sides clashed once again on the issue of repatriation of prisoners and how it should be conducted. While the UN, based on the fact that many of the Korean People's Army were forcibly enlisted and refuse to be repatriated to China, insisted that prisoners freely choose where they want to be returned to, the Communist side argued that all prisoners must be repatriated to their original country. The clash stalled the talk and the Repatriation Committee could not go on for about two months from February 27 to April 9, 1952. During the period, a severe epidemic raged in North Korea. Reproaching the UN that it was the results of the organization's use of bacteriological warfare, North Korea refused the entrance of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) to survey the situation.

On April 9, the Repatriation Committee was secretly reopen, in which North Korea guaranteed the safety of all POW and agreed to give them choice so long they go through individual interviews. However, after noticing that an overwhelming number of POW 76,600 North Koreans and 6,400 Chinese choosing to stay, the Communist side insisted on the forcible repatriation again, suspending the talk. On April 28 and May 2, both sides exchanged their opinions over the overall settlement, but the repatriation issue made it difficult to continue. As a result, the armistice issue of Korea was picked up by the international society. In the deadlock with the repatriation issue, the Armistice talks encountered more difficulties such as the riot in the Geojedo camp and the bondage incident involving General Dodd, F.T., the commander of camp, on May 7, 1952.

There the communist army prisoners of war established the underground organization, refused the repatriation, threatened and terrorized the anti-communist prisoners of war. At that time,, Ridgway was made NATO commander in succession to General D. D. Eisenhower, who resigned to run for presidential election, and General M. W. Clark, was appointed to the UN commander. General Clark, as part of his plan to reopen the armistice talks, made new attacks on North Korea, which included the bombing of Pyongyang 's Supung Dam on June 22. The combat was beginning to get intensified again as the UN fighters frequently engaged in air fights with MiG-15 jets of the Communist. So the battle continued in the Korean Peninsula , with combats repeating advance and retreat. In the United States, Eisenhower of the Republican Party won the presidential election in November of 1952 and he promised the public that he would visit Korea to end Korean War.

Frustrated, unsatisfied, and weary about the prolonged war, Americans gave the power to the Republican Party for the first time in 20 years. According to the promise, Eisenhower visited Korea and clarified in the press interview that the war would not delay, disappointing General Clark who wished to force the Communist side to come back to the negotiation table through military pressure. By the way, it is clear that Eisenhower, a hero of World War II, and J.K. Dulles, a hard line Secretary of State would have pressed the Communist side hard. While the armistice talks were in deadlock and combats continued, two important incidents took place. First, the seventh UN General Assembly passed a resolution introduced by India regarding repatriation of the Korean War prisoners with an overwhelming support from its members on December 3, 1952. The resolution created a repatriation committee consisted of four nations of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Sweden and Swiss, and the committee would interview the prisoners for 120 days, sending them to wherever they wished.

The USSR and China rejected the. Secondly, the death of Stalin on March 5, 1953 marked an important turning point. The Communist side proposed to resume the armistice talks and Chinese minister Chou En-lai, after discussing with new leaders of the USSR , newly proposed to entrust the prisoners who did not wish to be repatriated to the Neutral Nations, and guarantee safety to all prisoners. On April 11, Prisoners Exchange Pact of WIA was signed, starting the repatriation on April 20. The armistice talks began once again and on April 26, both sides agreed to create the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission. They also agreed to designate India as the nation to where they will keep the prisoners who did not wish to be repatriated. While the armistice talks began to show rapid progress since March, 1953, the resistance of the South Korea government gave rise to another serious conflict. With heavy casualties and property damage, the ceasefire would go directly against the unification policy South Korea has. Moreover, Lee Seungman, South Korea's first president, could not accept the fact that South Koran soldiers who were captured and forced to join the Communist army and even the anti-communist prisoners would be transferred to the enemy side. Lee openly expressed that an armistice would be equivalent to a suicide for South Korea and if necessary, his country will continue the war alone. In spite of the persuasion of General Clark, and the U.S. ambassador to Korea E.O. Briggs, Lee sent a notice to Eisenhower on April 24, just two days before the resumption of the armistice talks, if an armistice is signed when the Chinese People's Volunteers are still stationed in North Korea, he would withdraw his army from the UN command.

Supporting the Unification Policy, Korean citizens waged demonstration against the armistice and banned the entrance of soldiers for maintaining the prisoners on May 12. It was time for the U.S. to have General Clark to persuade the Communist side, and if it didn't work, USA would have to extend the war. The U.S. could managed to have India persuade China, but the most difficult task was to have the South Korean government agree with the armistice. Even after receiving an autograph letter of Eisenhower that promised economic and military aid to Korea in return for an armistice, Lee stubbornly ordered South Korea representatives to reject negotiation of an armistice. Then on May 30, Lee proposed to Eisenhower that the U.S. and South Korea sign a Mutual Defense Treaty. On June 6, Eisenhower promised Lee that he would be willing to negotiate a Mutual Defense and still continue the military and economic aid. At last, with the absence of South Korean representatives, the Allied and Communist sides signed a Repatriation Pact. But the South Korean government could not, even after the act, allow the repatriation of anti-communist prisoners. In an attempt to appease the South Korea government, Eisenhower invited Lee to the U.S. Lee, however, refused the invitation making a pretext of busy schedule, and without a warning to the U.S. released 27,000 anti-communist prisoners of war at the daybreak of June 18. Lee ordered soldiers and police to protect anti-communist prisoners. The communist side furiously reproached the U.S. about the incident, and Washington had to explain that it was not involved in the release at all, hoping that no harm would go to the armistice negotiation. For persuading Lee Seungman, it was time that the U.S. made more concrete negotiation with him.

On June 25, 1953, Washington sent W.S. Robertson, assistant secretary of state, as a special presidential envoy. Staying in Seoul for 16 days, he negotiated with Lee but to no avail. All the while the battles were continuing, with the South defense line being attacked with full force. Lee finally agreed on the armistice on July 11, principally due to the unfavorable condition on the borderline. At that time, the U.S. proposed four conditions to Korea: It would restart the negotiation for the Mutual Defense Treaty between the Republic of Korea and the United States of America; supply long-term economic aid to South Korea, to secede from the meeting, without the concrete results for the political unification of Korea for 90 days, after the ending of the armistice agreement, and promise the U.S. aid to the expansion of the South Korean Army. Hereby, on July 27, 1953, the armistice agreement was finally signed, with no side winning a victory. The Korean War raged on for three years and one month, taking the lives of some five million men and women, but no definite conclusion has been reached. Besides the violence and the bloodshed, everything had come full circle. In the midst of all the chaos, the ultimate victims of the war were the Koreans.

It was an unannounced war in blatant violation of international law attempted by the North, under the leadership of Il-sung Kim with the blessings of Stalin and Mao, in the attempt to expand communism around the world. It was a war that free nations banded together under the UN flag and successfully fought off the aggressors to preserve international peace.

South Korean managed to defend nation and maintained democracy with the assistance provided by the UN forces. However, the Korean War left its people with unforgettable sufferings and pain, with large numbers of victims and the bereaved families, wounded soldiers, refugees and orphans.
The scars of the war are still in their minds. Today, the sounds of gunfire are not heard, but two Koreas stand in confrontation with each other along the DMZ.

Casualties of Korea and UN

Civilian Casualties

61 countries helped the Republic of Korea during the Korean War
UN Combat Support (Entry into War / MIA or Fallen)
United States (1,789,000 / 40,677)
United Kingdom (56,000 / 1,257)
Turkey (14,936 / 904)
Australia (17,164 / 342)
Canada (25,687 / 313)
France (3,421 / 269)
Greece (4,992 / 192)
Colombia (5,100 / 163)
Thailand (6,326 / 134)
Ethiopia (3,518 / 121)
Netherlands (5,322 / 120)
Philippines (7,420 / 128)
Belgium (3,498 / 103)
South Africa (826 / 34)
New Zealand (3,794 / 24)
Luxembourg (83 / 2)

Medical Support
Sweden
India
Denmark
Norway
Italy

Material Support
Guatemala
Nicaragua
Republic of China
Dominican Republic
Germany
Liberia
Lebanon
Mexico
Monaco
Myanma
Venezuela
Vietnam
Bolivia
Brasil
Saudi Arabia
Syria
Switzerland
Argentina
Iceland
Haiti
Ecuador
El Salvador
Austria
Honduras
Uruguay
Israel
Iran
Egypt
Indonesia
Japan
Jamaica
Chile
Cuba
Cambodia
Costa Rica
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Pakistan
Hungary

Reconstruction Support
The Vatican
Spain
Liechtenstein
Ireland
Iraq
Portugal